1. PERFECT MODALS: повна мапа значень (у минулому)

Perfect modals мають форму modal + have + V3 і виражають висновки, оцінки та гіпотези про минуле, а також нереалізовані можливості та докори.

1.2. «Міс-нюанси», які плутають

• needn’t have + V3 — дія відбулася даремно: You needn’t have bought so much.
• didn’t need to + base — не було потреби (і, ймовірно, не робили): We didn’t need to buy any.
• could have + V3:
  • Нереалізована можливість: You could have called.
  • Минула можливість / гіпотеза: It could have rained last night.
  • М’який докір: You could at least have texted.
• couldn’t have + V3:
  • Неможливий висновок: He couldn’t have been there.
  • Умовна нездатність: I couldn’t have done it without you.
• shouldn’t have + V3 — даремно зробив: You shouldn’t have spent so much.
• might as well + base — «мабуть, варто»: We might as well leave.
• might as well have + V3 — іронія через поганий результат: You were so late, we might as well have stayed home.

1.3. Форми, про які часто забувають, та 1.4. Ступінь впевненості

Додаткові форми

• Perfect Continuous: must / might / could / should have been V‑ing — акцент на процесі: She must have been sleeping when I called.
• Passive: must / might / should have been done: The documents must have been sent yesterday.
• Питання: Could he have left? / Should I have told her? — нормальні, хоч і рідші.

Ступінь впевненості (про минуле)

will have / must have (висока) → should have (очікування) → may / might / could have (50/50) → can't / couldn't have (майже 0).

Швидка пам’ятка

2. HAD BETTER: кілька критичних деталей

• Форма: 'd better + base, 'd better not + base (без to): You'd better leave. / You'd better not be late.
• Значення: сильна порада з попередженням (негативні наслідки, якщо ні).
• Час: про зараз/майбутнє; для минулого не вживаємо (You'd better have… — рідкісна спец-структура з відтінком вимоги, але не для базового вжитку).
• Порівняння: should = м'якше; had better = «краще б негайно».
• Питання — неприродні; зазвичай твердження/заперечення.

3. BE SUPPOSED TO: повний спектр

• Обов’язок / правило / очікування: You’re supposed to wear a uniform.
• План або розклад: The train is supposed to arrive at 6.
• Чутки / загальна думка: She is supposed to be rich.
• Минуле нездійснене: I was supposed to call her yesterday.
• Очікування до ще більш раннього моменту: She was supposed to have arrived by 7.
• Заперечення = заборона: You’re not supposed to park here.
• Питання: Are we supposed to bring ID?
• Не плутати з прислівником supposedly: She is supposedly rich.

4. MEAN / MEANT: добудовуємо систему

• mean + -ing — мати наслідком/означати (як результат): Missing the bus means being late. / It meant losing everything.
• mean + to + V — мати намір: I meant to call you.
• be meant to + V ≈ be supposed to / призначено/очікується: This course is meant to help beginners.
• mean for sb to + V: I didn’t mean for you to see that.
• mean + (that) clause: This means (that) we'll need more time.
• Форми: mean – meant – meant (вимова /ment/ у 2-3 формах).
• Ідіома: mean well — «мати добрі наміри»: He meant well, but…

5. Додатково до «перфектного інфінітива» (без модалів)

• seem / appear to have + V3: He seems to have left.
• be likely / unlikely to have + V3: They’re likely to have finished by now.
• was / were to have + V3 (дуже формально): «мали (за планом) зробити, але…» We were to have met at noon, but it was cancelled.

6. Типові помилки → як виправити

• ✗ He mustn’t have seen us. → ✓ He can’t have seen us.
• ✗ We didn’t need buy so much. → ✓ We didn’t need to buy so much.
• ✗ You shouldn’t have to tell me earlier. → ✓ You should have told me earlier.
• ✗ He might have to leave already. (про минуле) → ✓ He might have left already.
• ✗ You had better to go. → ✓ You’d better go.

7. Міні-вправи (з відповідями)

А. Вибери правильний варіант

1. I’m not sure where Anna is — she may have left early.
2. They should have arrived by now — the flight landed at 3.
3. You needn’t have brought dessert — we already had plenty.
4. He must have been sleeping when you called — he never answers at 2 a.m.
5. You ’d better not be late again.

В. Переформулюй, зберігши зміст

6. Perhaps she finished the report. → She might / may have finished the report.
7. I’m certain he didn’t see us. → He can’t / couldn’t have seen us.
8. It was unnecessary, but he paid for the taxi. → He needn’t have paid for the taxi.
9. It was a mistake that you told her. → You shouldn’t have told her.
10. According to the schedule, the concert starts at 7. → The concert is supposed to start at 7.

С. Переклади коротко

11. He must have eaten already. (BrE також: He’ll have eaten already.)
12. You ’d better not argue with the teacher.
13. She is supposed to have arrived already.
14. I couldn’t have done it without you.